Securing operating systems and applications is a foundational aspect of cybersecurity. This involves hardening systems, developing secure software, managing vulnerabilities, and keeping systems updated.

Cryptography is the science of securing data by converting it into a format that is unreadable to unauthorized users. It plays a critical role in ensuring confidentiality, integrity, authentication, and non-repudiation of data.

Understanding the tools and technologies used in cybersecurity is critical for detecting, preventing, and responding to cyber threats effectively

Cybersecurity isn’t just about technology—it’s also about people, policies, and ethical behavior. Well-defined policies and ethical practices help prevent misuse of resources, protect privacy, and ensure proper response to security incidents.

Incident response is a structured approach to handling cybersecurity breaches and threats, ensuring minimal damage and quick restoration of normal operations. It's not just about fixing problems, but also learning from them to prevent future incidents.